2A). Bilirubin is the product of erythrocyte and hemoglobin turnover [13]. Concentrations of bilirubin were much lower (at least 5-fold) in both SA and AB squirrels as compared to winter hibernators (Fig. 2B). However, there were no www.selleckchem.com/products/MG132.html significant differences found for either cholesterol or free fatty acid concentrations as a function of state (Fig. 2C,D). It should be noted that there was marked individual

variation in the AB group squirrels for biliary free fatty acids with one squirrel demonstrating about a two fold higher concentration (not the squirrel with the large volume of bile). Figure 2 Bile constituents as a function of hibernation state. A) Bile acid concentrations in bile as a function of state. Values represent means ± SE from T (n = 3), IBA (n = 3), SA (n = 3), and AB squirrels (n = 4). AB was significantly lower than CBL-0137 order all other states (ANOVA, p < 0.05). When different, letters above error bars denote significant differences. B) Bilirubin concentration in bile as a function of state. Values represent Selleck GSK690693 means ± SE from T (n = 3), IBA (n = 3), SA (n = 5), and AB squirrels (n = 4). There were no significant differences between T and IBA or between SA and AB.

All other values are significantly different (ANOVA, p < 0.05). C) Bile cholesterol concentration as a function of state. Values represent means ± SE from T (n = 3), IBA (n = 3), SA (n = 13), and AB squirrels (n = 4). There were no significant differences (ANOVA, p > 0.05). D) Free fatty acid concentrations in bile as a function of state. Values depicted are from each individual animal (means ± SE) to demonstrate individual variation and represent T (n = 3), IBA (n = 3), SA (n = 3), and AB squirrels (n = 4). There were no significant differences (ANOVA, p > 0.05). Lecithin or phosphatidylcholine was significantly lower in the AB group as compared to all other squirrels (Fig. 3A). A major function of lecithin is in the excretion of cholesterol during normal metabolism [13]. Osmolality was unchanged as a function of state (Fig. 3B). Torpor state had a significant effect on pH (Fig. 3C). Bile from winter hibernators (T and IBA) was significantly D-malate dehydrogenase more acidic than either SA

or AB bile. Indeed, hibernator bile had over 10 fold higher H+ concentration than AB bile (> 1.2 pH units). Bile protein concentration was significantly different as a result of state: hibernators (T and IBA) had approximately 5 fold higher protein levels than their AB counterparts (Fig. 3D). AB animals were more similar to SA squirrels. Figure 3 Bile constituents as a function of hibernation state. A) Bile lecithin/phosphatidylcholine concentration as a function of state. Values represent means ± SE from T (n = 3), IBA (n = 3), SA (n = 3), and AB squirrels (n = 4). AB was significantly lower than all other states (ANOVA, p < 0.05). When different, letters above error bars denote significant differences. B) Bile osmolality as a function of state.