As shown previously with VSDI for electrical events, we now demonstrate that Ca2+ waves propagate continuously through the cortex, recruiting large areas, perhaps even the entire cortex. In contrast to studies applying VSDI (Huang et al., 2010), we did not observe spiral or other nonlinear wave patterns. A possible explanation for this discrepancy may be that VSDI reflects primarily subthreshold activity, whereas Ca2+ imaging using fluorescent dyes mainly reflects suprathreshold neuronal activity (Garaschuk et al.,

2006b; Lütcke et al., 2010; Rochefort et al., 2009). The first field potential recordings of thalamic slow-wave oscillations were obtained in hemidecorticated cats in vivo (Timofeev and Steriade, 1996). In that study, the authors provided evidence from a small sample of combined cortical EEG and thalamic

Vemurafenib cost field potential recordings that spontaneous cortical waves preceded the associated thalamic ones. In the present study, we determined the corticothalamic wave latencies only for sensory- and optogenetically evoked waves, because these have, unlike spontaneous waves, a defined, unique site of cortical initiation. For such evoked waves, we demonstrate a clear temporal dominance of cortical over the thalamic wave initiation. Thus, visually evoked Ca2+ waves as well as Ca2+ waves evoked by intrathalamic optogenetic stimulation occur first in the buy Y-27632 visual cortex and only after a delay of about 180–200 ms in the dLGN. We emphasize that our findings only apply to the slow-wave activity. The primary fast neuronal activation upon visual stimulation will take place in the visual thalamic nuclei first, before being transmitted to the thalamorecipient cortical layer 4. Irrespective of their mode of initiation, Ca2+ waves were found to be remarkably unitary with virtually constant amplitudes and durations at a given brain location. This suggests that during waves of different origins, including the spontaneous, sensory-evoked, or optogenetically induced ones, a similar number of neurons participates on average in the slow oscillatory activity.

Our results obtained using optical Ca2+ recordings reveal Liothyronine Sodium properties of the slow oscillatory events that were not recognized previously. First, we observed an all-or-none behavior of the Ca2+ waves. The analysis of the optogenetically evoked waves particularly demonstrated that light pulses as short as 3 ms either evoke a full wave or no wave at all. Similarly, different light intensities for a given duration of the stimulating light pulse either evoked a full wave or no wave at all. Second, repetitive stimulation allowed the induction of consecutive waves only for intervals that were longer than about 2.5 s. For shorter intervals, wave initiation was either partially or, for very short intervals, completely refractory.