Our model (Figure 1) proposes that acculturation (wave 1) is negatively associated with cultural values (wave 2), and enculturation (wave 1) is positively associated with cultural values (wave 2). We also expected cultural values (wave 2) to be positively associated with family cohesion and to be negatively Tofacitinib Citrate JAK associated with family conflict and discrimination (wave 2). Finally, we expected discrimination and family conflict (wave 2) to predict increased smoking (wave 3) and we anticipated family cohesion (wave 2) to predict less smoking (wave 3). We also expected to find gender effects. Specifically, we anticipated the links between cultural values and family functioning to be stronger for girls than for boys, and we expected family functioning to more strongly predict girls�� than boys�� smoking.

Figure 1. Hypothesized model showing all expected relationships and their predicted valence. Covariates were age, socioeconomic status, friend smoking, and adult smoking. METHODS Participants Participants included 1,436 Hispanic students who participated in Project RED (Reteniendo y Entendiendo Diversidad para Salud), a three-wave study of acculturation and substance use among Southern California youth (Unger, Ritt-Olson, Wagner, Soto, & Baezconde-Garbanati, 2009). Participants self-identified as Latino/a or Hispanic. About 54% of participants were female, 85% were 14 years old, and 86% were U.S. born. The majority of the students in the current study (85%) had a Mexico-born parent, grandparent, or great-grandparent, followed by the United States (30%), El Salvador (8%), Guatemala (6%), Honduras (1%), and Spain (1%).

Over half of the students (56%) reported speaking ��English and another language equally�� at home, 17% of the students reported ��speaking mostly English�� at home, 12% reported ��speaking only another language at home,�� and 14% reported ��speaking mostly another language�� at home. Likewise, about 36% of the students reported speaking ��mostly English�� with friends, 33% reported speaking ��only English�� with friends, and 29% reported speaking ��English and another language equally�� with friends. Data Source and Procedure Youth were enrolled when they were in 9th grade, attending seven high schools in the Los Angeles area. Schools were invited to participate if they contained at least 70% of Hispanic students, as indicated by the California Board of Education. Sampling included an emphasis on schools with a wide range of socioeconomic characteristics. The median annual household incomes in the ZIP codes served by the GSK-3 schools ranged from $29,000 to $73,000, according to 2000 census data. Because students were sampled from seven schools, we calculated intraclass correlations (ICC) that were low and did not affect the results.