The chemical synapse is the most direct form of cellular communication between neurons; here, the exact apposition of pre- and postsynaptic membranes optimizes

the success of intercellular communication via transmitter diffusion. Many other forms of cellular communication in the brain seem to rely on the diffusion properties of the ECS and the much less accurately defined positioning selleck chemical of signaling molecules in the neural cell membrane. This type of diffusible transmission is designated volume or extrasynaptic transmission. As described for calcium ions (Hrabetova et al., 2009), neurotransmitters (Scimemi & Beato, 2009) and proteins (Thorne et al., 2008) the diffusion properties depend on a variety of factors SP600125 nmr including temperature, viscosity, charge and shape of the ECS, collectively and formally characterized by the tortuosity (reviewed by Sykova & Nicholson, 2008). The ECM primarily determines the charge and viscosity of the ECS, whereas membrane protuberances of neurons and glial cells, such as spines and filopodia, cause the structural restrictions for free diffusion in the ECS, also defined as geometric tortuosity (Kullmann

et al., 1999). Measurements of extracellular ion concentrations during neuronal activity have revealed changes in the relation between potassium, sodium, calcium and chloride ions during synaptic transmission (Heinemann et al., 1977; Rausche et al., 1990) that influence the membrane potential of the active cell population. Hence local ion fluxes can function as feedback mechanisms for the active population of synapses Rebamipide (Rusakov & Fine, 2003). The high content of negatively charged CSPGs in the ECM is very likely to affect local

changes of ion concentrations. A recent study on diffusion properties of cations in the ECS suggests that negatively charged CSPGs change these diffusion properties in particular for calcium ions. By removing the charged chondroitin sulfate side chains with chondrotinase ABC, Hrabetova et al. (2009) were able to detect a global increase in the effective diffusion coefficient of bivalent ions such as calcium, whereas the diffusion properties of the monovalent cation tetraethylammonium did not change. Physiologically, a local depletion of extracellular calcium can occur as a result of the frequent activation of postsynaptic NMDA receptors and hence decrease the presynaptic release probability, as demonstrated for the CA3 mossy fiber synapse in the hippocampus (Rusakov & Fine, 2003). The ECM density is particularly high in the PNN around GABAergic, parvalbumin-containing fast-spiking interneurons. Because of their high negative charge, Hartig et al. (1999, 2001) postulated that one function of the PNN might be to increase the local ion buffer capacity in order to balance local depletion of cations during high-frequency firing activity.