This method reliably prevented sleep ( Figure 4A). Consistent with the raised brain histamine levels in HDC-ΔBmal1 mice, the EEG profiles between the genotypes differed during sleep deprivation: littermate control mice had frequencies distributed in the δ-to-θ range (2–10 Hz), with two peaks at 2 and 8 Hz, but the HDC-ΔBmal1 mice had a single broad peak of enhanced power relative to controls, centered in the θ range ( Figures S4G and S4H). After sleep deprivation, mice slept freely in Selleckchem Ku-0059436 their home cages. Littermate control mice had a recovery sleep lasting about 10–12 hr (Figure 4A), with sustained

NREM periods remaining 6 hr into the night. They reaccumulated their NREM sleep at a rate of approximately 30 min extra NREM sleep per hour (Figure 4B). The δ power in the EEG of littermate control mice remained elevated, compared with presleep Pifithrin-�� deprivation levels, for some 12 hr after sleep deprivation (Figure 4C). By contrast, HDC-ΔBmal1 mice did not sustain their recovery sleep: it was about 6 hr shorter than sleep-deprived control littermates ( Figure 4A), and their enhanced δ power of recovery sleep, already lower compared with littermate controls

before sleep deprivation, remained lower as it declined to baseline ( Figure 4C; Figure S4H). HDC-ΔBmal1 mice reaccumulated their NREM sleep at a slower rate than control mice: 12.5 min extra NREM sleep per hour ( Figure 4B). Because HDC-ΔBmal1 mice Montelukast Sodium had more REM baseline sleep than littermate controls during the day ( Figure 3G), they had more REM loss during sleep deprivation, namely they had more REM sleep to lose by sleep deprivation ( Figure S4J). HDC-ΔBmal1 mice also had a quicker reaccumulation of REM sleep during recovery sleep ( Figure S4J). In the recovery stage after sleep deprivation, HDC-ΔBmal1 mice had more transitions from NREM to REM, which caused more REM gain but less NREM gain. The reason could be that hdc expression was stronger in the HDC-ΔBmal1 mice during recovery sleep (see next section). We

examined HDC expression in TMN neurons at the end of the sleep deprivation period (ZT5; 5 hr of sleep deprivation). ZT5 is when HDC and histamine levels are normally lower (Figure 1). At the end of the deprivation period, however, HDC expression was at the higher nighttime levels in both littermate controls and HDC-ΔBmal1 mice ( Figure 4D), suggesting that sleep deprivation increases hdc gene expression. Consistently, sleep deprivation raises histamine levels in cerebrospinal fluid [ 36]. In control mice, 4 hr into recovery sleep, HDC protein expression had decreased (roughly halved) to typical ZT6 levels (1% ± 0.05% versus 0.36% ± 0.03%, AUs, one-way ANOVA and post hoc Bonferroni, ∗∗∗p < 0.001) ( Figure 4E). In HDC-ΔBmal1 mice, HDC protein expression remained elevated ( Figure 4E).