A significant increase in activities of both the above mentioned enzymes in the present study suggests increased generation of superoxide anion radical

in gastric tissues following piroxicam selleck inhibitor administration. Pre-treatment of rats with aqueous curry leaf extract protected the enhanced generation of superoxide anion radical by preventing the increase in activities of the pro-oxidant enzymes. Gastric mucin is a pivotal factor in protecting gastric mucosa from physical damage and back diffusion of hydrogen ions. Depletion in mucin content in piroxicam-administered animals possibly occurred due to the adverse effects of free superoxide anion and hydroxyl radicals. Gastro-mucosal mucin depletion was protected on pre-administration

of aqueous curry leaf extract in piroxicam-fed animals. Microscopic study of Alcian blue dye stained Ku-0059436 purchase gastric sections puts forward the possibility that the leaf extract might have increased or changed the nature of mucous secreted in stomach. Stomach tissues of piroxicam fed animals showed increased acid mucin secretion, which was minimized to a great extent in aqueous extract pre-treated piroxicam-fed animals. Piroxicam, a classical example of NSAID exerts its action like other NSAIDs by decreasing serum circulating and gastric tissue prostaglandins (PGE2) [1]. Such therapeutic action of piroxicam and other NSAIDs brings with it detrimental toxic actions in organs particularly the stomach where this PGE2 exerts its protective action. PGE2 stimulates mucous and bicarbonate secretion as well as mucosal blood flow, and

induce angiogenesis. Serum and tissue level PGE2 were protected in aqueous curry leaf extract pre-administered rats further strengthening the idea to use this aqueous extract in combination therapy in piroxicam treatment. Figure 8 proposes a model to explain the multi-step protection rendered by aqueous curry leaf extract in piroxicam induced gastric tissue damage. The figure clearly explains piroxicam mediated oxidative stress is the principal contributor in stomach tissue damage and ulcer. Aqueous extract pre-administration results in protection against all damaging effects through its antioxidant role, inhibitory action on pro-MMP9 activity and protective effects on quantity and nature Tyrosine-protein kinase BLK of gastro-protective mucin secretion. Oral administration of piroxicam at a dose of 30 mg per kg body weight induced gastric ulcer in male wistar rats. Pre-treatment with aqueous extract of curry leaves at a dose of 200 mg per kg body weight an hour before oral administration of piroxicam protected against piroxicam induced oxidative stress mediated gastric ulcer. Thus, curry leaves may be included in regular diet of patients undergoing piroxicam and similar NSAID treatment. It may be used either singly or in co-therapeutic treatment regimen.

Inflammation is a main factor in the initiation, progression, and acute complications of an atherosclerotic plaque [2]. Resveratrol has shown significant cardiovascular protective effects [3] in models of myocardial injury [4] and [5], systemic and pulmonary hypertension [6], and type 2 diabetes [7]. Several cardioprotective mechanisms of resveratrol, including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-fibrotic actions, have been identified [8]. The low in vivo bioavailability caused by rapid resveratrol metabolism and elimination, its major disadvantages, limits the results for patient studies [9]. Boron

is a bioactive element for humans and boron-containing compounds present different biological activities [10]. Calcium fructoborate (CF) is Gefitinib nmr a complex of calcium, fructose, and boron found naturally in fresh and dried fruits, vegetables,

herbs, and wine [11] and [12]. In previous studies, the effect of CF on human polymorphonuclear neutrophils and macrophages, which play a central role in the inflammatory response, has Obeticholic Acid cell line been investigated [13] and [14]. Two very recent studies have provided important information on the possible molecular anti-inflammatory activity of CF in the treatment of osteoarthritis [15] and [16]. The purpose of this controlled pilot study was to assess the short-term synergistic effect of resveratrol in combination with CF on the clinical and biological statuses of subjects with stable angina pectoris. The combination of these two substances was based on the fact that CF acts as a stabilizer for resveratrol degradation in the digestive tract [17]. Furthermore, CF might present a positive synergism together

with resveratrol, increasing the anti-inflammatory properties of the former and the biological efficacy of the latter as an antioxidant agent. The study was randomized, double-blinded, active-controlled, Clostridium perfringens alpha toxin and paralleled with three groups of subjects who received the test drugs and one control group of subjects who were not randomized. This single-center trial was approved by the institutional ethics committee of the Craiova Cardiology Center (Craiova, Romania) according to decision no. 400 in February 2010. The trial also was in accord with the Declaration of Helsinki of 1975, which was last reviewed in 2008. Placebo was not admitted by the hospital bioethics commission owing to ethical considerations. Nevertheless, this trial had a control group with subjects who fulfilled inclusion criteria, but they received only their usual medical care and treatment, without any test materials, during the clinical trial. The number of total enrolled subjects was 166 (Fig. 1). Of 116 subjects who met the inclusion criteria, 87 were included in the intention-to-treat analysis, divided into three groups (29 subjects in each group), and all completed the entire protocol.

6, 200 mM NaCl, 100 mM CaCl2, and 1% Triton X-100). After LBH589 in vivo centrifugation (12,000 × g, 10 °C, 10 min), protein concentration in supernatant aliquots was determined ( Lowry et al., 1951), and equal amounts of total protein loaded for zymography (60 μg/lane) to determine gelatinase activity ( Heussen and Dowdle, 1980). Zymogram gels consisted of 7.5% polyacrylamide-SDS impregnated with 2 mg/ml type A gelatin from porcine skin (Sigma, St. Louis, MI) and 4% polyacrylamide-SDS for stacking gels. Gels were further washed twice for 30 min in 2.5% Triton X-100 solution, then incubated at 37 °C for 24 h in substrate buffer (10 mM Tris–HCl buffer, pH 7.5, with 5 mM CaCl2, 1 mM ZnCl2). Gels were stained with 30%

methanol/10% acetic acid solution containing 0.5% brilliant blue R-250 (Sigma) and discolored with the same

solution without Selleck HSP inhibitor dye. Quantitative image analysis was performed with software Scion Image for Windows (Scion Corporation, National Institutes of Health; Bethesda, MD). Statistical analysis was carried out using GraphPad Prism software (GraphPad Software Inc., San Diego, CA) with one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA), Tukey’s multiple comparisons test and unpaired Student’s t-test analyzing differences between groups. The significance level was set to p < 0.05. At 1 DPI the snake venom induced extensive myonecrosis (Fig. 1A, E, K) and sarcolemmal disruptions evidenced by EBD fluorescence in both strains (Fig. 1I, J). Serum CK levels at 3 h after venom injection (Fig. 1L) confirmed that the extension

of acute tissue damage is similar in gastrocnemius muscle from C3H/HeJ mice with a non-functional TLR-4 receptor and C3H/HeN mice with functional receptor. Myonecrosis and intense inflammatory infiltration (3 DPI) corresponded nearly to 30% of the total tissue area in both C3H/HeJ and C3H/HeN (Fig. 1B, F, K). TLR4-deficient mice showed at 10 DPI a 3-fold (p < 0.05) increase in the area of injury compared to C3H/HeN mice ( Fig. 1C, diglyceride G, K). C3H/HeJ lesion was characterized by intense inflammatory infiltrate and connective tissue deposition ( Fig. 1C, G). No significant difference was observed in the CK activity between both strains ( Fig. 1K). At 21 DPI both strains showed ( Fig. 1D, H, K) numerous myofibers with central nucleation, an indication of efficient muscle regeneration. Regional lymph nodes from C3H/HeJ and C3H/HeN showed at 3 DPI similar increase of cellularity in the draining lymph nodes from venom inoculated muscles in comparison to the contralateral lymph node (Fig. 2A). However, at 10 and 21 DPI (Fig. 2B, C) TLR4-deficient mice showed a significant (p < 0.05, p < 0.001) increase of cellularity in the lymph node of the inoculated muscles compared to C3H/HeN wild-type mice. Intramuscular inoculation of the venom causes an increase of muscle mass due to massive edema formation (Barbosa et al., 2008).

Also, protein ubiquitination in Apitolisib synapses of rat brains was also studied using this approach [ 28]. Advantages and challenges are also discussed in recent reviews [ 24 and 29]. There are some limitations to this approach in that there is some ambiguity in assigning gly-gly modifications on lysine residues to ubiquitination, as for instance NEDD8 modification also leads to the same tag present on lysine side chains after proteolytic trypsin digestion. To overcome this, other tags on the basis of the detection of LRGG-lysine have been used in MS experiments (Figure 2). However, this approach is not feasible for the detection of protein

modifications with other ubiquitin-like proteins, such as SUMOylation. Recent attempts to overcome this without the need to introduce SUMO C-terminal mutations were reported in which the application of aspartic acid cleavage, caspase, elastase and trypsin digestion protocols were used to generate SUMO tags on lysine residues that can facilitate find more detection of modifications by SUMO1 and SUMO2/3 [30 and 31]. Such approaches permit the survey of a wider range of ubiquitin and ubiquitin-like modification profiles on proteomes under normal physiological and pathological conditions in the future. Advances in the sensitivity and throughput

of mass spectrometry (MS) based discovery capabilities have continued to spur experiments that are focused on characterising the expression of conjugating (E1/E2/E3s) and deconjugating enzymes (DUBs), but also their interactors and/or substrates. For instance, whole Montelukast Sodium cell proteome studies can now provide insight into the turnover and levels of several thousands of cellular proteins in one single experiment [32••, 33 and 34••]. Of particular note is a study reporting on a reference proteomes of 11 cell lines illustrating differences

in the steady state level of a number of proteins [32••]. This is the first time that comprehensive information on the abundance of components of the ubiquitin system is available in different cell types. Interestingly, the abundance of ubiquitin-specific enzymes appears to vary to a great extent as demonstrated for a selection of E3 ligases and DUBs (Figure 3). This information can help to better understand their biological function when combined with functional assays, cell type specificity and regulation. Also, direct co-immunoprecipitation of either E3 ligase components or DUBs directly has given better clues about the enzyme’s function through the discovery of interactors and/or substrates [35, 36 and 37]. However, these approaches have their limitations in terms of the identification of cognate substrates as often direct enzyme-substrate affinities are low.

01). from the statistical analysis. Analyte concentrations were log 2-converted and

normalized to the mean for each analyte with variance −1 to +1. Although a large proportion of the detected proteins was found to be differentially expressed, the small sample size (10 subject per group) may have limited the statistical power and hampered discovery of additional T2D-specific proteins. The clinical characteristics for the 20 age- and BMI-matched participants (10 T2D and 10 NGT individuals) are reported in Table 1. The T2D patients exhibited impaired glucose tolerance as assessed by an oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT), as well as increased fasting GSK126 plasma glucose concentration and elevated HbA1c levels

Anti-diabetic Compound Library in vitro compared to NGT subjects. Total cholesterol (mmol/L) and LDL cholesterol (mmol/L) levels were significantly lower in T2D than the NGT participants, possibly due to statin treatment in 30% of the T2D patients. Importantly, mRNA expression levels of selected metabolic genes or measures of in vitro lipid and glucose metabolism were not different between myotube cultures derived from the statin-treated versus non-treated subjects (data not shown). Patients included in the study controlled their diabetes with diet, metformin or sulfonylurea. None of the patients were receiving insulin therapy. To determine intrinsic differences in myotubes derived from T2D patients versus NGT subjects, mRNA expression of genes involved in insulin action and skeletal muscle differentiation were analyzed. Expression of desmin, myogenin, or insulin receptor mRNA did not differ in T2D versus NGT myotubes during differentiation (data not shown).

GLUT4 mRNA was not differently expressed in myotubes from T2D versus NGT subjects, but the expression of GLUT4mRNA was lower in myoblasts derived from T2D versus NGT subjects (Fig. 1A, p < 0.05 for T2D versus Urease myoblasts). In addition, the mRNA expression of both IGF1R and Akt1 was significantly higher in myotubes from T2D versus NGT subjects ( Fig. 1B and C, respectively, p < 0.05). Thus, intrinsic molecular differences exist at the level of mRNA expression of some genes in myotubes derived from T2D patients. Metabolic properties were assessed to further investigate the intrinsic differences in myotubes derived from T2D patients versus NGT subjects. Differentiated myotubes were studied at baseline or following 6 h of insulin exposure (120 nM) for assessment of glucose incorporation into glycogen, lactate production, lipid (palmitate) oxidation, and phenylalanine incorporation into protein (Fig. 2A–D). At baseline, glycogen synthesis was significantly lower (19%) in myotubes derived from T2D versus NGT subjects (p < 0.05) ( Fig.

Whereas in the Collembola, movement was impaired between 0 and 20 °C by the same acclimation treatment. Alaskozetes antarcticus is already known to have a greater capacity to survive higher

temperatures buy 3-Methyladenine than the Collembola ( Everatt et al., 2013). It is therefore plausible that A. antarcticus is able to benefit physiologically from a period at 9 °C, while the Collembola may find the temperature damaging. It should be noted that, while no acclimation response was exhibited for the CTmax and heat coma following two weeks at 9 °C, acclimation did occur in both −2 and +4 °C reared individuals, with all species showing significantly higher CTmax and heat coma temperatures under +4 vs −2 °C treatments (Fig. 2). The ability to acclimate in response to these two temperature regimes perhaps illustrates the process of natural acclimatisation between winter and summer conditions. However, as the upper thresholds of activity in −2 °C acclimated individuals are already above the highest summer temperatures they experience, the observed change may simply reflect the acclimation of their lower activity thresholds, which are lowered following one month at −2 °C (Fig. 1). This further supports the consensus highlighted above, that greater plasticity is shown at lower temperatures but not at higher

temperatures. Physiological changes that improve activity at low temperatures, such as increased membrane fluidity and subsequent improvement in the function of neurotransmitters, ATPases and ion channels (MacMillan and Sinclair, 2010), are likely to be to the detriment of Protein tyrosine phosphatase higher temperature activity. The current study has expanded on previous studies Veliparib mw to show that the polar mite, A. antarcticus, and Collembola, C. antarcticus and M. arctica, are capable of sub-zero activity. These invertebrates also show plasticity in their CTmin and chill coma temperature

following acclimation at lower temperatures, as well as being capable of activity at temperatures close to their SCPs. By depressing their lower thermal activity thresholds as temperature falls, these invertebrates are able to maximise the short growing season. At higher temperatures, these species are able to remain active above 30 °C, a temperature far higher than is experienced in their Antarctic or Arctic habitats. This indicates polar terrestrial invertebrates have a thermal activity window comparable to that of temperate and tropical insects and, in spite of their limited physiological plasticity at higher temperatures, have thermal scope to tolerate future rises in temperature under climate change. MJE was funded by the Natural Environment Research Council (RRBN15266) and was supported by the British Antarctic Survey and the University of Birmingham. Fieldwork at Rothera was supported by the NERC AFI Collaborative Gearing Scheme (CGS-73). We thank J. Terblanche and an anonymous reviewer for constructive comments on an earlier version.

To generate

a BSMV:TaWAK5 construct, a 298 bp sequence of TaWAK5 (from nucleotide position 1913 to 2211 in the TaWAK5 cDNA sequence) was amplified from the cDNA sequence for TaWAK5 Docetaxel concentration from the genotype CI12633 with the primers TaWAK5-VIGS-F/TaWAK5-VIGS-R. PCR-amplified cDNA fragments were digested with Pac I and Not I, then ligated into the BSMV:RNAγ vector digested with Pac I-Not I, resulting in the recombinant construct RNAγ:TaWAK5-as. Following a previously described protocol [32], the tripartite cDNA chains of BMSV:TaWAK5, or the control virus BMSV:GFP genome, were separately transcribed into the RNAs, then mixed and used to infect CI12633 plants at the 2-leaf stage. At the same time, CI12633 plants were inoculated with only the buffer without virus. Hereafter, these plants treated only with buffer are referred to as mock treatments. The 4th leaves of the inoculated seedlings were collected and analyzed for the virus infection based on the RNA transcript presence of the BSMV coat protein gene using selleck kinase inhibitor primers BSMV-CP-F/BSMV-CP-R. These tissues were also evaluated for changes in TaWAK5 expression with primers TaWAK5-Q-F/TaWAK5-Q-R

at 10 days after BSMV infection. For R. cerealis inoculation, the fungus was cultured on potato dextrose agar at 25 °C for 10 days, then 1 cm2 plugs from the edge of R. cerealis colonies were placed into liquid PDA medium and cultured at 25 °C for 2 weeks, to develop the mycelia. The 4th base sheath of wheat plants was inoculated with 15 μL of the R. cerealis liquid culture at 20 days after BSMV virus inoculation. Inoculated plants were grown at 90% relative humidity for 4 days. Sharp eyespot symptoms were observed respectively at 14 days and 40 days after fungal inoculation. These are the times when sharp eyespot symptoms are normally present at the infected sheaths and stems, respectively, of the susceptible cultivar Wenmai 6. RT-PCR was performed with 20 μL reaction volumes from the TaKaRa Inc. kit containing 1 × PCR buffer, 2.0 μL 10 × first strand cDNA,

150 μmol L− 1 of each dNTP, and 1 U Taq polymerase, plus 0.25 μmol L− 1 of each primer. The program used was as follows: initial denaturation at 94 °C for 5 min; followed by 30 cycles Urease of 30 s at 94 °C, 30 s at 60 °C, and 30 s at 72 °C; and final extension at 72 °C for 5 min. The PCR products were detected on 2% agarose gels. In all the semi-quantitative RT-PCR experiments, wheat elongation factor 1 alpha-subunit (TaEF-1a) was used to normalize the cDNA contents among various samples. qRT-PCR was performed using SYBR Green I Master Mix from TaKaRa Inc. in a volume of 25 μL on an ABI 7300 RT-PCR system (Applied Biosystems Corp.). Reactions were set up with the following thermocycling profile: 95 °C for 5 min, followed by 41 cycles of 95 °C for 15 s and 60 °C for 31 s. The products were continuously examined with a melting curve analysis program.

Two-sided P values are reported and, in general, values <.05 were considered statistically significant. An effort to control for multiple comparisons was made during the planning stage by using well-established biomarkers whose classification is supported by the literature. 2 and 20 Analyses were performed using SAS version 9.3 (SAS Institute Inc, Cary, NC) and R version 2.14. 32 Data collection and statistical analyses were conducted by the Alliance Statistics and Data Center. Among the 2720 cases Selleck Dabrafenib with complete

data on all tumor markers, tumors were classified into 3 pMMR subtypes that included tumors with mutations in either BRAFV600E (n = 189; 6.9%) or KRAS (n = 945; 34.7%), and those lacking a mutation in these genes (n = 1331; 48.9%) ( Table 1; Figure 1A). Afatinib clinical trial Of note, mutations in BRAFV600E and KRAS were mutually exclusive. The 2 dMMR subtypes included sporadic (n = 184; 6.8%) tumors with BRAFV600E mutations or MLH1 hypermethylation, and familial (n = 71; 2.6%) cancers that lacked BRAFV600E mutations and had unmethylated MLH1, which is consistent with LS ( Table 1; Figure 1A).

Among pMMR subtypes, patients with BRAFV600E mutated tumors were oldest (median age, 63 years), were most likely to be women (58.7%), and had the highest rates of proximal site (75.7%), T4 stage (15.9%), high-grade histology (44.4%), and N2 stage (59.3%) ( Table 1). MMR-proficient tumors of the mutant KRAS subtype were more commonly located in the proximal colon (58.1% vs 33.2%) compared with tumors lacking mutations in BRAFV600E or KRAS ( Table 1). Within the most prevalent subtype of pMMR tumors lacking mutations in either BRAFV600E or KRAS, there

were more men than women compared with Glutamate dehydrogenase the other subtypes, except for familial dMMR patients (P ≤ .002), and 66.8% of tumors were located in the distal colon ( Table 1). Patients with sporadic dMMR tumors had the oldest median age (66 years) at randomization among all subytpes, were most likely from women (69.0%), had highest rate of high-grade histology (54.3%), and nearly all (95.1%) were located in the proximal colon ( Table 1). The familial subtype of dMMR tumors was associated with younger age, male sex, high-grade histology, and proximal site, which are features of LS-associated colon cancers 33 ( Table 1). Among colon cancers with loss of MLH1 protein expression, 80% had BRAFV600E mutations and the remaining cases had nonmutated BRAF with promoter hypermethylation of MLH1. The distributions of the 5 subtypes in relation to tumor subsite location (ie, cecum, ascending colon hepatic flexure, transverse colon, splenic flexure, descending colon, and sigmoid colon) were examined (Table 1). A majority of pMMR tumors with BRAFV600E mutations were located in the proximal colon (75.7%), with approximately half (51.1%) found in the cecum plus ascending colon. Nearly half (46.

This observation, and the potential for rare CVs to explain much of the remaining additive genetic variation not tagged by SNPs, are together potentially consistent with a model of purifying selection of varying strength: CVs of small effect are under weak to nonexistent purifying selection and drift to high frequencies whereas CVs of larger effect are under increasingly strong purifying selection and kept rare because of it (Figure 1). Finally, although we have argued that much of the remaining variation in traits that has

not been explained by SNPs is likely to be due to rare CVs, there are several alternative explanations for Selleck Natural Product Library the discrepancy. For example, it is possible that family studies have over-estimated additive genetic variation,

meaning that little additive genetic variation remains to be explained and that rare variants thereby account for little trait variation. Forthcoming methods that use whole-genome sequencing data or shared identical-by-descent haplotypes, both of which can measure or tag rare CVs, should be able to put the rare variant debate largely to rest by directly estimating the importance of rare CVs. We have presented evidence from schizophrenia that is generally consistent KU-60019 with underlying CVs on average being under purifying selection and their frequencies being maintained by mutation–selection balance. Findings on human personality [6•] and other behavioral traits appear generally consistent

with this, although datasets are smaller and conclusions more tentative. However, the substantial proportion of variation accounted for by common CVs suggests that the highest frequency/smallest effect CVs may be selectively neutral or nearly neutral. These findings are not contradictory. It is important to recognize that the mutation–selection Histamine H2 receptor and the neutral mutation-drift models are not qualitatively distinct; they exist on the same continuum defined by the strength of purifying selection. To date, there is no convincing evidence that balancing selection plays an important role in maintaining the genetic variation in behavioral traits, and outside of the MHC region, genome-wide scans suggest a limited role for balancing selection in general 55, 56 and 57]. Nevertheless, absence of evidence does not necessarily equate to evidence for absence, and future findings could challenge this conclusion. Large whole-genome sequencing datasets will greatly expand our ability to understand the importance of rare variants in complex traits and inform our understanding of the evolutionary processes involved in maintaining traits’ genetic variation. Nevertheless, attempting to understand the evolutionary roots of genetic variation in traits will remain inherently difficult because selection acts on total ‘net fitness’ rather than fitness with respect to any given trait.

Neuronal circuits in sensory system are closely connected with other nerve systems for efficient handling of sensory information.1 For example, taste sensory high throughput screening information that reached the nucleus tractus of solitarius is principally relayed to the gustatory

cortex via the parabrachial nucleus, but also targets to the other brain area such as the cerebral cortex, hippocampus, amygdala, hypothalamus and nucleus accumbens for the better storage or recall of taste memory or the innate and instinctive response such as preference and aversion.2, 3 and 4 Thus, it is suggested that the deprivation or disruption of taste sensory relays may affect the function of those brain regions. Taste sensory system is in charge of evaluating the nutritious content of food and preventing the ingestion of toxic substances, and importantly also has the additional value of contributing to the overall pleasure and enjoyment of a meal. Eating has been viewed as a strategy to improve negative mood5 and to mask stress,6 and studies indicate that healthy, normal-weight persons regulate negative emotions by eating.7 and 8 It has been reported that decreased responses

in the reward network including the nucleus accumbens to palatable food may be a trait marker of vulnerability to depression.9 and 10 In rodents, anhedonia, a reduced sensitivity to reward, which is a core symptom of major depression, can be measured by a decreased intake of and preference for sweet solutions. Indeed, sweet solutions have been shown to rapidly calm stress responses in human MG-132 research buy newborns,11 and selleck screening library in adults, experimentally induced negative mood is improved

immediately and selectively after eating palatable food,12 suggesting that immediate positive affective reactions elicited by palatable foods diminish the impact of stress. Collectively, it is hypothesized that alterations in oral sensory information can modulate the psycho-emotional status of individuals. Lingual nerve can be damaged by dental surgery or trauma such as physical irritation, radiation, chemotherapy, or viral infection. This study was conducted to define the psycho-emotional effects of the lingual nerve damage in which oral sensory relay to the brain is disrupted, and the rats were tested for anxiety- and depression-like behaviours after bilateral transections of the lingual and chorda tympani nerves. The chorda tympani nerve joins the lingual division of the trigeminal nerve, the lingual nerve, and distributes together to the fungiform papillae on the anterior two thirds of the tongue and may reach also the anterior portion of the foliate papillae. Axons of glossopharyngeal nerve supply both tastes buds and general sensory innervations to the vallate and foliate papillae, and also tastes buds in the pharynx.13 Thus, it is expected that with bilateral transections of the lingual and chorda tympani nerves, rats may lose the sensory information from the anterior two thirds of tongue.