We would like to thank Elena Couñago for her help in preparing the cartography and to Cristina Santa Marta

and Lobo Orensanz for their careful and critical reading of the manuscript. “
“The presence in seawater of dissolved and suspended organic substances, treated collectively as organic matter, means that this medium is not just a solution of inorganic salts. Organic matter plays a key role in a variety of natural (physical and biological) processes occurring in the marine environment, especially in JAK inhibitor shelf seas like the Baltic, where its concentration is substantial (Seager and Slabaugh, 2004 and Kuliński and Pempkowiak, 2008). These processes include oxygen depletion, as well as complex formation with both organic

and inorganic compounds, which facilitates the downward transport of chemical substances (C, N, P, heavy metals, organic pollutants) in the water column. Organic matter influences the chemical Selleck Dasatinib and physical properties of seawater, including the light field and alkalinity (Dera, 1992, Hedges, 2002 and Kuliński et al., 2014). Aquatic organic matter is commonly divided into particulate organic matter – POM and dissolved organic matter – DOM. Both fractions are important components of the carbon cycle. POM in the marine environment is composed of phytoplankton, zooplankton, bacteria and dead organic material (detritus), while dissolved organic matter comprises molecules of both high and low molecular weight. Both POM and DOM originate from internal and external sources (river run-off, atmosphere, sediments) (Emerson & Hedges 2008). Organic matter is most often measured as organic carbon (OC), which makes up some 45% of organic matter (Chester 2003). In the oceans, the OC concentration is < 1.5 mg dm− 3, but in coastal areas it amounts to as much as 8 mg dm− 3 (Hansell, 2002 and Gardner et al., 2006). Like organic matter, organic carbon

is for practical purposes divided into two principal fractions: particulate organic carbon (POC) and dissolved organic carbon (DOC). Cediranib (AZD2171) Both fractions can be separated by passing seawater through, for example, 0.4 μm glass-fibre filters. The POC and DOC concentrations in the Baltic Sea have been a subject of interest for many years (Jurkovskis et al., 1976, Pempkowiak, 1983, Pempkowiak et al., 1984, Emelyanov, 1995, Ferrari et al., 1996, Grzybowski, 2003 and Grzybowski and Pempkowiak, 2003, Burska 2005, Pempkowiak et al., 2006, Kuliński and Pempkowiak, 2008, Dzierzbicka-Głowacka et al., 2010, Dzierzbicka-Głowacka et al., 2011 and Szymczycha et al., 2014). Concentrations of DOC and POC in Baltic seawater have been reported to range from 3.2 to 7.7 mgC dm− 3 (Jurkovskis et al., 1976, Grzybowski and Pempkowiak, 2003 and Kuliński and Pempkowiak, 2011) and from 0.1 to 1.4 mgC dm− 3 (Burska 2005, Kuliński & Pempkowiak 2011).

2002), were present in the Vistula as well as in the Gulf of Gdańsk. Betaproteobacteria were present at station E54, affiliating with the freshwater Alcaligenaceae MWH-UniP1, the coastal clade OM43

and the clade Comamonadaceae BAL58, which was isolated from the Baltic Proper ( Simu & Hagström 2004). The bacterial Selleck AG 14699 community structure in the Baltic Sea is characterised by a large seasonal diversity change ( Andersson et al. 2010). The lack of the freshwater betaproteobacterium Limnohabitans in August may be explained by its seasonal appearance just after the spring phytoplankton bloom in the Gulf of Gdańsk ( Piwosz et al. 2013). T-RFLP and the clone library, which are methods based on polymerase chain reactions, cannot be treated quantitatively. In contrast, CARD-FISH enables the counting of single cells and the comparison of relative abundances of the investigated bacterial groups. However, as there is no Selleckchem Selumetinib perfect oligonucleotide probe that targets only the group of interest,

the use of probes that target broader bacterial groups at the phyla level carries the danger of over- or underestimation (Amann & Fuchs 2008). Relative bacterial numbers based on the CARD-FISH probes used in this study showed only a general picture of the community composition in the Vistula river plume. The occurrence of the diatom Coscinodiscus sp. influenced the bacterial communities in the Gulf of Gdańsk. The mix of freshwater and typical marine bacteria exhibited a high diversity in this region. Interleukin-2 receptor The change in environmental conditions from the river to the open sea may have caused the death of some freshwater bacteria, but some

of them probably adapted to marine conditions and became an integral part of the southern Baltic Sea bacterioplankton. We thank Friedrich Widdel of the Max Planck Institute for Marine Microbiology for allowing the first author to make use of the institute’s facilities, Bernhard M. Fuchs and Jörg Wulf for instruction and help in the use of the institute’s flow cytometer, Kasia Piwosz of the National Marine Fisheries Research Institute for her phylogenetic assessment of sequenced clones, Dariusz P. Fey for collecting the water samples from Kiezmark, and the captain and crew of the r/v ‘Baltica’ for their assistance with the sampling. We also thank Bernhard M. Fuchs, Kasia Piwosz and two anonymous reviewers for their valuable comments on this manuscript and Susanne Hartfiel for editing it. Supplementary information “
“Sand and gravel resources in the Polish Exclusive Economic Zone of the Baltic Sea are already subject to mining procedures. Artificial beach nourishment with sand from the sea bottom is the basic method of coastal defence proposed by the strategy of coastal protection (Cieślak 2001), which has been implemented by the Polish Parliament in the Act ‘Programme of coastal protection’ (Official Gazette No. 67 pos. 621, 18 April 2003).

The kidneys exhibited intense congestion of glomerular capillaries, small hemorrhagic foci in the medullary region, and discrete vacuolar degeneration of the proximal convoluted tubules epithelium. The heart showed severe bleeding in the endocardium, extending to the myocardium. Meningeal and

parenchyma blood vessel congestion and small hemorrhagic foci were observed in the central nervous system (CNS). Calves 1 and 2, which received a single ABT-263 in vitro S. versicolor dose in Experiment 1, fell sick 4 and 21 h after plant administration, respectively. The clinical signs, which were similar between the animals, included apathy, mucosal congestion, loss of appetite, diarrhea with watery, green and fetid stools, lateral recumbency and abdominal breathing. The main necropsy findings were intense and diffuse redness of the abomasal mucosa and the serosal and mucosal layers of the intestine, which contained bloody substance. The mesenteric lymph nodes were enlarged, with surface depressions, and hemorrhage

areas; mesenteric vessels were markedly engorged. Calf 3 was apathetic, with hyperemic mucosa, loss of appetite, diarrhea with watery, green and fetid stools and polydipsia, but showed clinical recovery three days after S. versicolor administration. click here In Experiment 2, calves 3 and 4 had diarrhea with watery, green and fetid stools, apathy and loss of appetite 24 h after plant administration. They recovered from the clinical signs within 8–9 days from the beginning of the plant administration in daily doses, indicating non-cumulative effects. Histological changes were similar between calves 1 and 2. They consisted of necrosis in the lymphoid tissues (spleen, lymph nodes, Peyer’s patches) (Fig. 2) and necrotizing enterocolitis (Fig. 3). No changes were found in serum biochemistry 17-DMAG (Alvespimycin) HCl analyses. Clinical signs, necropsy and histological findings in cattle spontaneously intoxicated by S. versicolor were similar to those found in experimentally poisoned calves, providing evidence that the plant

was responsible for the outbreak studied. Other studies do not report spontaneous or experimental poisoning of cattle or other livestock by S. versicolor leaves. However, this plant, which is locally called “estraquinina” (a type of poison) ( Lemos, 2012), is considered toxic in the Pantanal and by livestock producers in the outbreak area because it is rarely grazed ( Pott and Pott, 1994). Although the S. versicolor tree can reach 11 m in height ( Lorenzi, 1998), the ingestion occurred, in the outbreak area, because the plants were still growing and were about 1 m in height. The single doses of 15 g/kg and 5 g/kg of S. versicolor leaves were lethal to the cattle. The doses of 1.5 g/kg and 2.

Other parameters such as temperature, volume, pressure, and gel strength also influence the final product (Basu et al., 2005). Interestingly, some brands of TCBS use proteose peptone (e.g. Difco) in their formulation, while others use bacteriological peptone (e.g. Oxoid). In this study there was 0% mortality with proteose peptone at all tested concentrations meanwhile bacteriological Buparlisib chemical structure peptone induced severe loss of turgor, matting of spines, and tissue necrosis at the same concentrations and 100% mortality at 20×. The variability showed between peptones could be related with the difficulties in inducing transmission

of disease through the injection of TCBS in some instances. Disease induced by TCBS injections have been shown to have a potential for interspecific transmission in previous studies (Caballes et al., 2012). In this study, no animals were reported sick after 12 days of exposure and contact with sick and decomposing A. planci and Ribociclib mouse repeated

consumption of A. planci remains by fishes. Only one Pomacentrus moluccensis died, but several bite marks on its body and fins indicate that mortality was not related to disease or infection. Rivera-Posada et al. (2012) demonstrated that peptone toxicity is concentration dependent and the TCBS concentration employed in this study was only 44 g l−1 which is half the concentration used in previous studies. In addition there was no manipulation of physical parameters such as pH, salinity and temperature that are key factors in promoting growth of bacteria. Another important aspect to consider is the water volume and maintenance conditions. Caballes et al. (2012) used small plastic aquariums while this study used 2 m3 tanks with high water flow. In small spaces and in the absence of predators that feed on remains, bacteria concentration is higher due Buspirone HCl to the large amount of decomposing tissues in the water. For fishes that feed on dead remains of A. planci, the risk of secondary toxicity or disease is low. Their digestive

and immune system will help to halt toxicity of the remaining tissues by degrading tissues and bile salts. Initially, A. planci tissues will be degraded by chloridic acid and powerful enzymes that are responsible for the breakdown of food in the stomach (killing bacteria that overgrow during disease and after death and structurally decomposing the remaining tissue). Subsequently, A. planci remains will pass to the intestines of scavenging fish, which also breaks down tissues using enzymes released by the pancreas and bile from the liver ( Hofmann and Hagey, 2008 and Bodo, 2011). Peristalsis also is at work in this organ, moving food through and mixing it with digestive secretions from the pancreas and liver. The intestine is largely responsible for the continuous breaking-down process and for absorption of nutrients into the bloodstream.

Having 10 ports on the side of a ship still remains a practical solution, especially if laid out in a staggered arrangement.

When the discharge port holes are close together or form of a slot, the entrainment rate is reduced because the perimeter available for entrainment is reduced. Further Palbociclib solubility dmso downstream interacting jets and plumes tend to combine into a single entity (Kaye and Linden, 2004). For example in the case of a slot of width 2b02b0, the jet radius growth and velocity decay are b=b0+αxb=b0+αx and u/u0=1/(1+αx/b0)1/2u/u0=1/(1+αx/b0)1/2 respectively. Similarly to a circular jet the dilution increases with distance but at a slower rate, i.e.  Djet=(1+αx/b0)1/2-1Djet=(1+αx/b0)1/2-1. For large ships and low alkaline waters, it may become impractical to add multiple discharge ports. The engineering alternative selleck chemical is to form a discharge tank in the hull of the ship or a sea chest with port separation as suggested in Fig. 6d. Alternatively, technologies are available that rely on multiple jets

issuing from a single discharge port which could be employed. When these are not available, the remaining solution is to either add an alkaline agent at a constant rate with alkalinity Cbadd or to dilute onboard, both of these processes can be represented as an equivalent dilution DonboardDonboard. In this case, the outlet port radius b0b0 and number of ports N   are determined from an implicit equation equation(25a,b) Donboard=1+DT1+2αx/b0-1,N=Qs(1+Donboard)πb02u0For the results to be physically meaningful Donboard⩾0Donboard⩾0. Fig. 7a,b,c highlight the effects of onboard dilution on a 5, 10 and 15 MW ship. Fig. 7d shows the reduced need for dilution due to alkali addition of negligible volume that in essence has the effect of reducing the scrubber wash water acidity equation(26)

Ca0=(Cas-Cb0-Cbadd)QsQs+Qw. In this paper we have examined the implications of the MEPC 59/24/Add.1 Annex 9 policy and engineering solutions to ensure compliance. The key variables to the pH recovery within the ambient seawater in which the ship operates are the turbulent discharge jet nozzle radius b0b0, the alkalinity of the seawater Cb0 and the acidity of the discharge Ca0. The discharge flow rate Q0Q0 then determines the number of ports N  . The practical challenge of introducing Thiamet G multiple ports can be met using a sea chest with circular holes. In case of either very acidic scrubber discharges or low alkalinity waters additional pH recovery can be induced by onboard dilution DonboardDonboard or alkali addition (see Section 3.2). The detailed analysis has identified some specific issues related to compliance. The scrubber discharge rises due to buoyancy and it is also swept past the outlet nozzle by a flow induced by the propeller during the compliance test (the engine needs to be running and driving the screw), this leads to significant jet deflection (see Fig. 3c and d). As shown in Fig.

“
“IR3535® [3-(N-n-butyl-N-acetyl)-aminopropionic acid ethylester, 1, Fig. 1] is a derivative of the natural amino acid β-alanine and an effective insect repellent (Carroll et al., 2010, Carroll, 2008 and Naucke et al., 2006). IR3535® did not show systemic toxicity after single and repeated dermal or oral administration

in rats and dogs, respectively (Pfister et al., 1996 and Schmitt, 2006). Based on several in vitro and in vivo studies (rats, rabbits), a mean dermal penetration rate of approx. 30% of the applied dose was found for IR3535® ( Arcelin and Stegehuis, 1996, Burri, 1996a, Burri, 1996b and van de Sandt, 2002). As other esters with widespread dermal application ( Goebel et al., 2009, Jewell et al., 2007, Prusakiewicz et al., 2006 and Williams, 2008) absorbed IR3535® is rapidly metabolized by ester cleavage and is rapidly excreted as the free acid [3-(N-n-butyl-N-acetyl)-aminopropionic acid, Selleck MK 2206 2, Fig. 1] with urine ( Burri, 1996a, Burri, 1996b, Ladstetter, 1996 and Schmitt, 2006). Since a study in humans under realistic conditions is considered the method of choice to assess dermal exposure (Boogaard, 2008), the aim of this study was to determine extent of absorption and kinetics of excretion of IR3535® in humans after dermal application. The toxicokinetics of IR3535® were determined in five male and five female human subjects after application of a repellent formulation containing 20% IR3535®.

Urine and blood samples were taken at predetermined time points and the concentrations Selleckchem GDC 941 Carnitine palmitoyltransferase II of IR3535®1 and IR3535®-free acid 2 were determined by LC–MS/MS in these samples. The formulation containing 20% (w/w) IR3535® (name: EUS26-15) was supplied by Merck KGaA (Darmstadt, Germany) in pump spray bottles. The composition of the formulation is provided in Table 1. Received bottles were

stored protected from light at room temperature. They were used as received. For the preparation of the spray formulation, batch 1887B006 of IR3535® (MW = 215.29 g/mol) was used (purity 99.6%). This batch was also used as external standard. ®IR3535-free acid (MW = 187.24 g/mol) was received from Merck KGaA as external standard. All other reagents and solvents were reagent grade or better and obtained from several commercial suppliers. Human subjects (five males and five females) were included in this study. All subjects in the study had to refrain from alcoholic beverages and medicinal drugs two days before and throughout the experiment. Subjects did not abuse alcohol and were non-smokers; for details on participating subjects, see Table 2. Subjects were healthy as judged by detailed medical anamnesis and had normal liver and kidney function based on clinical blood chemistry. The study was carried out according to the Declaration of Helsinki, after approval by the Regional Ethical Committee of the University of Würzburg, Germany, and after written informed consent by the human subjects participating.

Second, the outcome of plant–plant interactions in plant communities – and especially the SGH – has been increasingly cited in recent years to be dependent on species-specific effects between facilitators Cisplatin and beneficiaries,

thus promoting niche differentiation (sensu Tilman, 1982) and resource use complementarity ( Liancourt et al., 2005, Callaway, 2007 and Gross et al., 2009; see Maestre et al., 2009 for a refined SGH taking into account these aspects). Accordingly, the fact that species architecture and species diversity may differ between TAE and extratropical environments also questions the global validity of plant–plant interaction models, which have been designed outside the alpine tropics. Herein, we review the ecological and environmental features of TAE in comparison with other alpine ecosystems. We then discuss the current state of knowledge on patterns and process of plant–plant interactions in TAE. We conclude by suggesting potential

avenues for future research on plant–plant interactions in TAE, including priority Y-27632 supplier hypotheses to be tested, methodological approaches, and how current and future knowledge in this field may extend the conceptual framework of plant–plant interactions in alpine environments worldwide. Tropical alpine areas are defined as regions that are located above the natural high-altitude treeline, within 23°26′N and 23°26′S (Smith and Young, 1987, Körner, 2003 and Nagy and Grabherr, 2009). The lower altitudinal limit of TAE occurs between 3400 m and 3900 m a.s.l. although they may develop as low as 2000 m in various tropical Megestrol Acetate islands, presumably because of a lack of tree species adapted to high altitude and/or a stronger aridity occurring in these types of TAE (Leuschner, 1996). The upper altitudinal limit commonly extends to between 4600 m and 5000 m a.s.l. (Smith and Young, 1987 and Luteyn, 1999). The term ‘tropical alpine’ encompasses a variety of regional terms

referring to such areas, including páramo, puna, afro-alpine, and zacatonal (see Smith and Young, 1987, for a detailed review on terms). The majority of TAE (probably more than 90% of the total area) are located in the Andes, between Venezuela and Chile–Argentina (Jacobsen, 2008). Further north, a relatively large area of dry TAE occurs in Mexico between 3000 m and 5000 m a.s.l. (Nagy and Grabherr, 2009). Residual páramo ecosystems also occur in Costa Rica (highest point: 3810 m) and Panama (3475 m; Luteyn, 1999). In Africa, most TAE are located in the eastern mountain ranges of the continent (White, 1983) but an isolated alpine zone has also been described on the volcanic Mount Cameroon (4095 m; Letouzey, 1985). New Guinea harbours the most extensive TAE in South-east Oceanic Asia (4884 m; Smith, 1994) with an area of approximately 700 km2 (Buytaert et al., 2011).

annularis wasp venom (Q9U6V9), covering approximately 17% of this sequence (Score: 91, p < 0.05; see Supplementary Material). Through this analysis it was also possible MS 275 to determine a molecular mass of 43,277 Da and a calculated pI value of 8.13 for Pp-Hyal,

while the values for the protein obtained by molecular cloning were a molecular weight of 39,648.8 Da and a pI of 8.77. These differences may result from the specificities of each technique and the degree to which the digested peptides retained their post-translational modifications, such as phosphorylation, acetylation, and glycosylation, which result in changes to the pI and molecular mass ( Seo and Lee, 2004). Western blotting was carried out using the specific Pp-Hyal-antibody, as previously described. As shown in Fig. 9, the specificity of Pp-Hyal-specific antibody was confirmed by Western blotting because it recognized the Pp-Hyal protein in purified fraction ( Fig. 9A) and crude venom ( Fig. 9B, lane I), but no reaction was observed with venoms of A. pallipes pallipes, P. lanio lanio, Antiinfection Compound Library A. mellifera or S. invicta ( Fig. 9B, lanes IV–VII), although a significant amount of immune cross-reactivity was observed with venoms from the genus Polybia (sericea and ignobilis) ( Fig. 9B, lanes II and III). Recognition of other protein bands in the extracts of P. paulista crude venom by the Pp-Hyal-antibody

would Atezolizumab mw most likely be due to the presence of four isoforms of Pp-Hyal, as recently described by Santos et al. (2010) and Pinto et al. (2012), which likely share some common epitopes. Hyaluronidase of wasp venom is an allergen that has been extensively studied in several genders and species of European and American wasps, but few studies have been conducted in Neotropical social wasps. A high degree of immunological cross-reactivity among the allergens in the venom of Hymenoptera insects makes identification of the insect responsible for the stings difficult. Patients previously sensitized to the venom of a specific insect (e.g. from wasp) who are then stung for a second time by a different

insect, can exhibit the presence of non-specific IgE antibodies. This can result in false-positive due to cross-reactivity with the allergens of different venoms whose epitopes have similar conformations, thus rendering differentiation by B-1 cells impossible. In addition, false-negative results can be observed in skin tests due to the low amount of IgE detected by tests with low sensitivity (e.g. RAST) (Hemmer, 2008). In this study, the deduced primary sequence of Pp-Hyal protein from cDNA cloning presented a high degree of similarity to the same protein from P. annularis venom. This species is phylogenetically closer to P. paulista than the other species used here for comparison, even though both Polistes and Polybia belong to the same Polistinae subfamily.

1) [13]. Cardiovascular (CV) diseases, including arterial thrombosis, are the most common cause of mortality in developed countries [14] and platelets are key-targets for the treatment and the prevention of ischemic

events. Upon inflammation [15], endothelial cells are activated and recruit platelets to the site of atherosclerotic plaque formation [10] and [13], together with adhesive molecules which stimulate migration of smooth muscle cells and monocytes [16]. In mice, deletion of the TxA2 receptor delays plaque development, illustrating the role of platelets in atherosclerotic plaque formation Ixazomib molecular weight [13] and [17]. Moreover, activated platelets also release adhesive molecules in the nascent plaque, thus enhancing the effect of endothelium activation on plaque progression. For instance, p-selectin and chemokines released from platelets activate monocytes that migrate into the plaque and increase the local inflammation process (Fig. 1). Activation

of endothelial cells and the expression of tissue factor increase the thrombogenic potential of plaques [13]. In addition, platelets release TxA2, which increases inflammation by its vasoconstricting action [5] and promotes platelet aggregation and local platelet recruitment (Fig. 1) [15]. The lesion is then covered by a fibrous cap. Rupture of an atherosclerotic selleck screening library plaque occurs by ulceration or erosion, under the effect of inflammation and/or enzymes released by immune cells. Platelets

are key components in the subsequent thrombus formation, which can occlude the artery and results in organ infarction [16]. Since platelets play a major role in atherosclerosis and thrombus formation, antiplatelet agents belong to the first line of treatment in CV diseases [18]. The main oral antiplatelet drugs target two important amplification pathways of platelet activation: TxA2 production and the action of adenosine diphosphate (ADP, Fig. 2). Aspirin (acetylsalicylic acid) is the oldest anti-platelet drug used in CV diseases [19]. It irreversibly acetylates platelet cyclooxygenase-1 Vitamin B12 (Cox-1) serine 529 and inhibits TxA2 production, thus impairing platelet activation [5] (Fig. 3). A low dose of aspirin (75–325 mg/day) is usually prescribed because it induces an almost complete inhibition of platelet Cox-1. However, in nucleated cells, such as endothelial cells, cyclooxygenase causes a minimal level of acetylation due to its higher turnover. In addition, Cox-2, which is predominantly expressed in endothelial cells, presents a limited level of acetylation with low doses of aspirin. Thus, endothelial cell-derived eicosanoïd production is barely affected by low doses of aspirin. Moreover, using lower doses of aspirin minimizes the inhibition of prostaglandins and its related gastrointestinal tract side effects [18].

(Participant 3 [IG]) Participants generally appreciated the uncertainty involved in random allocation, if not the technical details, though the possibility that they might not get the novel intervention was not always prominent in the accounts provided. One participant spoke of her disappointment at having not been put in the “favored Selleck Staurosporine group”: I suppose truthfully, [I was] a bit disappointed, but not for long because it’s a research project. I just would have liked to have been in what I then considered the favored group! Of course because, you know, I think that that will work better for people and I presume that is the hypothesis.

(Participant 10 [CG]) Seven of the 8 control group participants expressed disappointment, whereas all participants in the intervention group were satisfied with their allocation. In some cases, they were simply pleased to be receiving some additional support, as usual care was seen as insufficient. I think I was more pleased because I know that GPs are

extremely busy, they hardly have time to talk to you, or hear what you’re saying. (Participant 8 [IG]) This study explored how patient preferences may be associated with performance bias in CAMWEL by examining reasons for participation which involve preferences and how participants react to disappointment when their preferences are thwarted. Participants were disappointed at being randomized to MK-2206 ic50 usual care because preference for the intervention arm was the principal

reason for participation. While they had not been apprehensive about the use of chance as an allocation mechanism, their reactions Carbachol to being randomized to usual care ranged from being “spurred on” to explore usual care (Participant 5) and deciding to assert “own control” (Participant 10) to being “totally disgusted” (Participant 6) at not being offered additional help. The reactions captured here include those speculated about by Cook and Campbell (3) more than 30 years ago. Whilst there is a longstanding literature on reasons for participation in research, there is not a body of work on how reasons for participation may impact on trial outcomes. Patient preferences may impact on trial outcomes [7] and [8], and this study contributes a new understanding of some mechanisms by which this may occur. These issues are not specific to patient counseling or behavioral intervention trials [28]. Historically, altruism has been seen as the key motivation for all forms of research participation [25] and [26], so it is striking how small a role altruism seemed to have played in people’s decisions to participate in this trial. The specific circumstances of evaluating new methods of helping people change well established behaviors, particularly where there have been past attempts to change, may militate against altruism. Where conditional altruism was reported, altruistic reasons appeared much weaker than the primary motivation of help-seeking.